Saururus chinensis is as a relic plant and its seed germination is notably slow and inefficient under natural conditions. To find a fast propagation method, a regeneration system of S. chinensis seedlings is established utilizing seeds as explant, employing plant tissue culture technique. The results showed that the optimal disinfection protocol was determined to be 75% ethanol treatment for 30 s followed by 0.1% (w/v) HgCl2 treatment for 10 min. This treatment resulted in a sterile germination rate of 37.41% and a contamination rate of only 5.56%. Furthermore, soaking seeds in 1.00 mg/L GA₃ for 2 hours and supplementing the culture medium with 0.20 mg/L IBA significantly improved germination, reaching a rate of 52.22%. During the seedling growth stage, the optimal medium for seedling development was identified as MS supplemented with 0.20 mg/L NAA+0.50 mg/L GA₃+1.00 mg/L IBA, under these conditions, seedlings reached an average height of 3.43 cm, developed dense root systems, and exhibited an average root length of 1.17 cm. To promote growth vigor, the subculture medium was further optimized to 0.50 mg/L NAA, 2.00 mg/L GA₃ and 0.20 mg/L IBA; this optimization produced seedlings with broad, dark green leaves, a plant height of 4.13 cm, dense root systems, and root lengths of 1.32 cm. Finally, regenerated seedlings were acclimatized in sterile soil and successfully transplanted to natural soil conditions, achieving a survival rate of 88%. Our work effectively supports the aseptic propagation and large-scale production, germplasm conservation, artificial breeding, and biological research of S. chinensis.

 

Drought stress significantly limits rice (Oryza sativa L.) growth and nutrient uptake. This study evaluated the effect of lysine-chelated zinc (LCZ) on mitigating drought-induced stress in callus tissues of two rice genotypes, Bas-370 and Kashmir Basmati. One-month-old calli were treated for 15 days with polyethylene glycol (PEG) to simulate drought stress (0%, 10%, and 20% PEG), both with and without 20 µM LCZ, under controlled conditions. PEG-induced stress led to a substantial reduction in callus fresh weight, relative growth rate (RGR), and the uptake of key nutrients, including phosphorus (P), manganese (Mn), magnesium (Mg), and iron (Fe). In contrast, LCZ treatment improved callus growth and partially restored nutrient uptake under drought conditions. The results suggest that LCZ can alleviate osmotic stress effects at the cellular level and support nutrient assimilation. These findings indicate the potential of LCZ as a supplement to enhance drought resilience in rice, though further validation in whole plants is recommended.

Plant systems with multiple stress tolerances hold immense promise for sustained growth and productivity under increasingly challenging environmental conditions. Therefore, exploring effective management strategies to improve their performance is of paramount importance. The limited success in developing stress-resistant genotypes can largely be attributed to inadequate evaluation and identification techniques, ineffective selection criteria, and an incomplete understanding of stress adaptation mechanisms. This review collates and analyses the use of numerous compounds, including Osmo protectants and plant hormones, to alleviate the negative effects of stress on plants. It is critical to develop a thorough understanding of the physiological and genetic variables that influence plant productivity and sustainability in the face of abiotic stress. In the context of growing environmental problems, our analysis emphasizes the importance of decoding plant adaptations to environmental stress as a critical strategy for improving agricultural sustainability and maintaining food security. We hope to contribute to creative solutions that will allow agriculture to thrive in a changing world by summarizing current knowledge and recommending attractive research avenues. Consequently, it is essential to acquire a comprehensive understanding of the physiological and genetic factors that affect plant productivity and sustainability under abiotic stress conditions. Considering escalating environmental challenges, this analysis highlights the significance of understanding plant adaptations to environmental stress as a vital approach for enhancing agricultural sustainability and ensuring food security. By consolidating existing knowledge and identifying promising research directions, this review aims to contribute to the development of innovative, science-driven solutions that will enable agriculture to thrive in a dynamic and changing climate

 

This study examines how beneficial microorganisms, specifically endophytic microbes, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), increase plant's resistance to abiotic conditions such heat, salinity, drought, and heavy metal toxicity. Beneficial microorganisms, such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), play a pivotal role in promoting plant health by enhancing defence mechanisms against abiotic stresses, including heat, drought, salinity, and heavy metals. These microbes utilize distinct metabolic pathways to boost plant stress tolerance. For example, AMF colonizes plant root zones, improving nutrient uptake, soil health, and protection against environmental stressors. Additionally, AMF and PGPR trigger metabolic changes that regulate stress hormones, enhancing plant performance under challenging conditions. PGPRs contribute to plant growth by synthesizing essential growth regulators like auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins, supporting plant development under stress. These microbial strategies promote plant health and offer significant potential for sustainable agriculture. By fostering beneficial plant-microbe interactions, farmers can reduce reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides, embracing eco-friendly farming practices. Ultimately, microbial adaptation mechanisms can contribute to a healthier ecosystem, more efficient crop yields, and increased food security, offering a promising solution for mitigating the impacts of climate change and environmental stressors on agriculture. For better production systems, incorporating these microbial tactics offers tremendous promise for developing resilient cropping systems, sustaining food security, and keeping ecosystems robust amid increasing environmental challenges

Toxicity induced by cadmium (Cd) heavy metal is an acute and potential threat to living organisms. It can cause cancer in humans while adversely affecting the growth of plants. The use of phosphorus (P) and zinc (Zn) is critical to resolve this critical issue. Homeostasis of these two nutrients in plants can potentially minimize the toxic effects of Cd. Furthermore, biochar, zeolite, and laterite are also becoming popular. These amendments also effectively minimize Cd toxicity due to their high absorption capacity. That’s why the current study was planned to check the effectiveness of P and Zn combination with biochar, zeolite, and laterite in alleviating Cd stress in maize. A total of 16 treatments (No P and Zn, P, Zn, P+Zn applied under control, zeolite, laterite, and biochar) were applied in 3 replications following a completely randomized design. Results showed that application of Zn+P caused significant enhancement in plant height (30.17%), chlorophyll contents (26.56%), root fresh weight (84.13%), shoot dry weight (91.89%), shoot Cd concentration (47.33%) and root Cd concentration (65.43%) compared to no P and Zn under zeolite. In conclusion, P+Zn application under zeolite can potentially mitigate the Cd toxicity in maize. More investigations are suggested at the field level under variable agro climate zones to declare P+Zn under zeolite as the best amendment for alleviating Cd stress in maize.

 

Crop productivity is affected by agronomic practices such as Seed rate, fertilizer and irrigation application. A field trial with different agronomic practices was laid out to improve canola productivity and alleviate drought stress with potassium. The experiment included three factors, Factor A: irrigation regimes i.e. I0 = Conventional (control), I1 = Vegetative + bud formation + flowering, I2 = Vegetative + bud formation + grain development, I3 = Vegetative + flowering + grain development, I4 = Bud formation + flowering + grain development), Factor B: exogenous application of potassium (K1= recommended and K2= split application of 1/3 soil + 1/3 fertigation + 1/3 foliar), and Factor C: seed rates (S1= recommended (2 kg per acre) and S2= reduced (1.5 kg per acre). Results showed that a dramatic response of irrigation regimes was noticed under the potassium application and seed rate. Maximum antioxidant activity of SOD, POD, and CAT was measured in the I0 treatment (conventional irrigation) with the exogenous application of potassium (K2) and reduced seed rate (S2).  Exogenous application of potassium significantly improved the grain yield (2.5%) and biological yield (1.85%) when compared with the recommended treatment (K1). The same trend was also noticed for reduced seed rate. Grain yield and biological yield (3.38% and 2.61%) increased significantly with reduced seed rate when compared with the recommended seed rate, respectively. It is concluded that by improving agronomic practices like with the exogenous application of potassium with reduced seed rate under I3 treatment (vegetative + flowering + grain development stage)

The present study aimed to investigate the variations in sugar composition among different processed forms of Polygonatum odoratum and establish a methodology for analyzing its carbohydrate content. This approach provides a reference for the clinical selection of processed Polygonatum odoratum products. Raw Polygonatum odoratum is bitter and astringent and is typically consumed after processing. However, research on processed Polygonatum odoratum products remains limited. Therefore, this paper examines the differences among various processed slices of Polygonatum odoratum, focusing on sugars as the primary active ingredient. The results demonstrate that processing reduces the total polysaccharide content and the relative molecular mass. Meanwhile, the free sugar content increases in all cases, with the degree of increase following the order: processed Polygonatum odoratum > stewed Polygonatum odoratum > wine-processed Polygonatum odoratum > honey-processed Polygonatum odoratum. While the composition of monosaccharides remains consistent before and after processing, the molar ratios change significantly. These findings indicate that different processing methods result in substantial alterations in the sugar composition of Polygonatum odoratum, with each processed product exhibiting unique characteristics. Notably, the stewed method shows significant advantages, providing a foundation for developing clinically relevant stewed Polygonatum odoratum products.

 

Plant-derived mucilage has received considerable attention due to its extensive applications in the formulation and modification of pharmaceuticals, functional foods, and nutraceuticals. The current study aimed to isolate water-soluble polysaccharides from okra pods' mucilage and investigate their biological prospects. Mucilage was extracted by immersing okra pods in distilled water for 24 hours and precipitated in 75% ethanol. The total carbohydrate content of crude mucilage, water-soluble, and ethanol-soluble polysaccharide fractions was determined using the phenol-sulphuric acid method. These fractions were then subjected to different biological assays, including antioxidant, antibacterial, In vitro alpha amylase inhibition, and In vitro and In vivo anti-inflammatory assays. The water-soluble fraction demonstrated notable antibacterial activity, with an inhibition zone of 3.89 ± 0.34 mm against K. pneumonie, while the crude fraction showed minimal activity against Klebsiella and Salmonella spp. The water-soluble polysaccharide fraction exhibited the highest percent radical scavenging activity, with the lowest EC₅₀ value of 785.5 μg/mL, followed by the ethanol-soluble fraction with an EC₅₀ of 987.21 μg/mL. Furthermore, the water-soluble polysaccharides demonstrated significant In vitro α-amylase inhibitory activity and membrane-stabilizing potential in hypotonicity-induced hemolysis of human erythrocytes. Notably, it also markedly reduced carrageenan-induced paw edema, indicating a strong anti-inflammatory effect In vivo. At higher concentrations, this fraction effectively reduced the inflammation, highlighting its potential as a natural anti-inflammatory agent. Our results conclude that the water-soluble polysaccharides present in the mucilage of okra pods and seeds possess promising antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and could be recommended for managing various inflammatory disorders. Further biochemical and structural characterization of these polysaccharides will broaden our knowledge of the potential role of these polysaccharides in combating inflammatory diseases and improving human health

Among leguminous forages, alfalfa genotypes vary significantly in terms of their potential for weed suppression, herbage productivity, nutritional quality traits, and synthesis of allelopathic compounds. A multi-year study was conducted to determine alfalfa genotypes performance under an organic production system. The study was conducted during the period 2018-2019 at the Bilecik Seyh Edebali University's research trials area. Promising genotypes of alfalfa, including Queen, Prosementi, Taurus, Ludelis, Triade, Nijagara, Ultra, Nardian, Osmanağa, Corsa, Global, Oslava, Occitane, and Costanza alfalfa genotypes were comparatively evaluated. Experiments were conducted in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replicates. The response variables included the density of weed species along with their fresh and dry weights in tested alfalfa genotypes., Additionally,  nutritional quality traits such as relative feed values, dry matter for consumption, neutral detergent fiber, leaf area indexes were also recorded during the course of study. There were statistically significant differences among the genotypes and characteristics examined. It was recorded that Corsa, Global, Prosementi, and Queen genotypes, remained superior by recording the maximum forage yield, quality traits, and weed suppression; thus, these genotypes are recommended for general adoption by alfalfa growers in Turkey

Combining ability and heterosis analysis are applied tools to identify the potential parents and best performing hybrids for yield and yield contributing traits in tomato. Four lines, viz., LA-2711, BL-1174, PB-LO-017904, Pioneer-2761 and four testers 01786, Yaqui, CLN-2413, and BA-1079 were crossed in line × tester crossing fashion to develop 16 F1 hybrids. Analysis of variance showed significant differences for genotypes for all agronomic traits including yield and its associated traits. In case of parents all the traits showed significant differences except, days to 50% flowering, clusters per plant, fruit weight and yield per plant. All traits showed significant differences in crosses except days to first flowering and days to 50% flowering. Comparison between parents and crosses were significant for days to first flowering, days to 50% flowering, fruits per cluster, fruit setting percentage, clusters per plant, plant height and fruit length. Differences among lines were significant for days to first flowering, days to 50% flowering, flowers per cluster, days to first harvest, clusters per plant, plant height and fruit length, days to 50% flowering. For testers, flowers per cluster, fruits per cluster, fruit setting percentage, plant height, fruit length and fruit per plant and fruit width showed significant differences. Interaction between lines and testers showed significant results for flowers per cluster, cluster per fruit weight and fruit length. Most of the traits were controlled by non-additive gene action. The genotype CLN-2413 was good general combiners for most of the characters, i.e. for flowers per cluster, branches per plant, plant height and fruits per plant. While BA-1079 for plant height, fruit weight, fruit length, fruit width and yield per plant and must be exploited in further breeding programs in future. Among crosses, good specific combiners were BL-1174 × BA-1079 for days to first flowering, BL-1174 × Yaqui for flowers per clusters and clusters per plant and Pioneer-2711 × 01786 for clusters per plant, LA-2711 × 01786 for plant height, PB-LO-017904 × 01786 for fruit weight and fruit length and may have the potential of commercial exploitation after further evaluation. On the basis of mid parent heterosis and better parent heterosis, the crosses i.e., BL-1174 × CLN-2413, BL-1174 × BA-1079, BL-1174 × Yaqui, Pioneer-2711 × 01786 , LA-2711 × 01786 and PB-LO-017904 × 01786 were marked to be the best indigenous experimental hybrids for most of the traits and the best combiners may also be useful in transferring the genes into other adapted genotypes, for exploiting heterosis on commercial scale after further evaluation

Rice breeding plays a vital role in ensuring global food security; however, effective breeding programs require rapid, accurate, and objective identification of rice diseases. The optimization of rice breeding holds significant importance in achieving increased and high-yield production. Conventional visual inspection methods are labour-intensive, subjective, and prone to human error, particularly when disease symptoms are subtle or visually similar. To address these limitations, this study proposes a non-numerical encoding–based convolutional neural network (NNE-CNN) for rice disease recognition. It expounds upon the algorithm's implementation principles, encompassing aspects such as initialization methods, encoding techniques, and population updating procedures. The performance of the proposed model was evaluated using two public benchmark datasets (Convex and Rectangles) as well as a rice disease image dataset. Subsequently, it utilizes the differential operator to compute an updating operator for the individuals. This process involves the removal or sparsity of certain convolutional layers within the CNN, thereby reducing the model's complexity and computational overhead while preserving its generalization capabilities. By deleting or sparsifying part of the convolutional layers in the CNN, the complexity and computational overhead of the model are reduced, while maintaining the generalization ability of the model. Experimental results demonstrate that NNE-CNN consistently outperforms classical CNN architectures and other intelligent algorithm-optimized models, achieving accuracies of 96.94% and 96.17% on the public datasets and a test accuracy of 97.50% on rice disease images. These findings indicate that the proposed method provides a robust and computationally efficient solution for rice disease identification, with practical implications for automated crop monitoring and data-driven rice breeding optimization.

 

The genus Acacia Mill. (s. lat.), a member of the Fabaceae, subfamily Mimosoideae contains over 1500 known species. Recent molecular phylogenetic analysis has reclassified African Acacia into two genera: Vachellia and Senegalia. Within the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) Acacia communities, represent one of the largest forest communities. This paper provides a comprehensive analytical review of the classification, relocation to the new genera, distribution, multifaceted uses, and current conservation status of Acacia species in KSA. The genus naturally spans diverse biogeographical distribution across KSA, from flat dry forests to high mountainous regions like the Soudah mountains of Asir. Currently, approximately 14 known Acacia species, with about 10 species allocated to Vachellia (with globular inflorescences and true spines) and 4 to Senegalia (with spicate flowers and prickles). However, there is still a lack of precise information about the exact number of species, subspecies and varieties, taxonomic relations and their biogeographical distribution. The species of two genera offer substantial ecosystem services, including environmental protection, medicinal applications, desertification control, climate change mitigation, water catchment protection, and the provision of various wood and non-wood products. Significantly, Acacia (s. lat.) trees are positioned to play a pivotal role in achieving the ambitious Greening Saudi Initiative objectives, such as planting 10 billion trees. However, the conservation status of many species is unfortunately declining, primarily due to a complex array of forest disturbances. These include insect pests, such as bark beetles, seed borers, and desert locust (e.g., bark beetles alone caused over 21% damage to Acacia populations in Hail). Furthermore, invasive species like Prosopis juliflora, coupled with forest fires, human-induced disturbances, and the overarching impacts of climate change, exert heavy pressure on these vital forest ecosystems. To address these challenges and resolve the existing taxonomic ambiguities, this review strongly recommends further studies in phylogenetic analysis and conservation status.

 

Biodiversity is of paramount importance to human society as it provides essential ecosystem services. Floristic diversity, a key source of botanical knowledge, plays a critical role in the conservation of ecological resources. This study aimed to assess the phytosociological aspects of the previously unexplored Takkar Wildlife Sanctuary in the Khairpur District. We conducted a sampling of 30 sites to evaluate the vegetation structure of the study area. Vegetation data were collected utilizing the quadrat method, with 20 × 20 m quadrats designated for shrubs and trees, and 2 × 2 m quadrats for herbaceous species. The Takkar Wildlife Sanctuary exhibited significant diversity in its flora, comprising 81 species across 34 families and 68 genera. The Poaceae family emerged as the most dominant, featuring 13 species (16%), closely followed by Fabaceae with 11 species (14%). Herbs and grasses constituted the majority of the flora, accounting for 59 species (72.8%) of the overall floristic composition, followed by shrubs (11 species, 13.5%). Perennial (50 species, 61.7%) were the most common lifespan category in the floristic composition, followed by annual (31 species, 38.2%). Based on the biological spectrum, Therophytes were the most dominant, representing 31 species (38.2%) of the total flora, followed by phanerophyte (20 species, 24.6%). The prevalence of therophytes indicates a region under high biotic pressure. Four species - Haloxylon salicornicum (Amaranthaceae), Aristida adscensionis (Poaceae), Prosopis juliflora (Fabaceae), and Capparis decidua (Capparaceae) - were identified as the most frequent species. TWINSPAN classification clustered the vegetation plots based on soil characteristics, identifying 20 distinct plant communities. Notably, one species, Tecomella undulata, was found to be globally threatened and classified as Endangered (EN) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. This research provides current information on the area's floristic richness, which may be beneficial for future plant conservation efforts.

 

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is a major fruit crop cultivated in arid and semi-arid regions and plays a vital role in the agricultural economy of Pakistan, understanding its genetic diversity is crucial for conservation, breeding, and sustainable crop improvement. As one of the top three fruit crops in the country, date palm is grown widely across Pakistan, except in the northern highlands. This study aimed to evaluate the genetic variation and population structure of 31 date palm cultivars, including both local and exotic varieties, collected from various regions of South Punjab, representing a key date palm-growing area with date plam genetic resources existing all over Pakistan. Sixteen SSR markers were initially screened, and ten were selected for genotyping. Principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis revealed considerable genetic variation, with 14 alleles detected across six successfully amplified SSR primers. Among them, mPdCIR025 exhibited the highest polymorphic information content (PIC) value of 0.37, indicating its strong discriminatory power. Major allele frequencies ranged from 0.5484 (mPdCIR025) to 0.9193 (mPdCIR015), while gene diversity values ranged from 0.1436 to 0.4953. Cluster analysis grouped the cultivars into three main clusters, highlighting clear genetic distinctions between local and exotic genotypes. These findings offer valuable insights for breeding programs, conservation efforts, and the sustainable utilization of date palm genetic resources in Pakistan.

 

The genus Artemisia comprises around 500 plant species widely distributed across Asia, Europe, and North America and known for their medicinal and aromatic properties. The highest species diversity is observed in Asia with the following breakdown across countries - around 150 species in China, 170 in Russia, around 50 in Japan, 35 in Iran, and 81 in Kazakhstan. Notably, 19 species have been identified within the territory of the Altyn-Emel State National Natural Park in Kazakhstan, indicating a high plant species richness of the region. According to recent observations, previous species descriptions have been supplemented with new data. Representatives of the genus Artemisia have a wide range of biologically active substances, making them a subject of considerable scientific interest. The present study provides an anatomical analysis and comparative assessment of the vegetative organs of three dominant species - Artemisia serotina, Artemisia heptapotamica, and Artemisia terra-albae - collected from the Altyn-Emel State National Natural Park. In the study sites, the soils were light chestnut  formed under sagebrush-grass vegetation. These soils are shallow, stony, and characterized by a well-developed turf layer. The humus horizon reaches a depth of 25–35 cm, with a humus content ranging from 2.5% to 3.2%. Carbonates (CaCO₃) are present from the surface layer (2–3%)) downwards, reaching 14–15% in the lower horizons. For anatomical studies, cross-sections of the vegetative organs (root, stem, and leaf) were prepared using the paraffin embedding method. Sectioning was performed with a microtome, followed by double staining with safranin and fast green. The findings of the study emphasize the ecological importance and resilience of Artemisia species, highlighting the need for continuous conservation efforts. The data provide critical insights for biodiversity management and the sustainable development of natural resources of Kazakhstan

Green chemistry offers sustainable approaches to nanoparticle synthesis by avoiding toxic reagents and utilizing plant-derived bioactive compounds. Rosmarinus officinalis leaves, rich in flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, and phenolics, were employed to synthesize gold nanoparticles (RO-AuNPs) within 10 minutes at room temperature. The nanoparticles were characterized by UV–Vis, FESEM, XRD, and EDX analyses. RO-AuNPs were predominantly spherical, monodisperse, and measured 16–57 nm in size. EDX confirmed gold as the major element, while XRD revealed a face-centred cubic structure. RO-AuNPs displayed antimicrobial activity against Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida albicans, with MIC values of 128, 64, 128, 64, and 256 µg/mL, respectively. The crude extract showed no such activity. Cytotoxicity assays on A549 lung cancer cells yielded IC₅₀ values of 33.60 and 23.12 µg/mL at 24 and 48 h, respectively. Apoptotic induction was confirmed by AO/PI staining and upregulation of Cytochrome C, indicating activation of the intrinsic mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Additionally, significant downregulation of IL-6 expression suggested anti-inflammatory activity with potential implications for tumor microenvironment modulation. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that R. officinalis-mediated gold nanoparticles possess multifunctional bioactivities and represent a promising, eco-friendly platform for future antimicrobial and anticancer applications

In this study the determination of biological effects of Nertera granadensis (Mutis ex L.f.) Druce, such as antioxidant and antifungal activities, was complemented with the qualitative analysis of phenolic compounds. It should be noted that the antioxidant and antifungal effects of N. granadensis have not been studied in previous studies. The antioxidant activities between four types of extracts obtained from the whole plant and the fruits were compared, and the antifungal effect of two types of extracts was assayed against the fungus Rhizoctonia solani. With the aim of evaluating the antioxidant effect, IC50 values were calculated using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS), and total phenolic content was determined by means of the Folin-Ciocalteu method. The antioxidant effect was also determined as gallic acid equivalents for the DPPH assay and as Trolox equivalents for the ABTS assay. Phenolic compounds contained in the whole plant and fruits of N. granadensis were analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) analysis. The extract obtained with methanol from the leaves, stems, and roots of N. granadensis using Soxhlet extraction (WPM) showed a higher antioxidant effect according to lower IC50 values of 2.8515 ± 0.0590 mg/mL and 0.7851 ± 0.0316 mg/mL, observed for the DPPH and ABTS assays, respectively. WPM also showed a fungistatic effect against R. solani. The results observed in this study revealed the antioxidant and antifungal effects of N. granadensis, and the HPLC-MS analysis allowed the identification of flavonols and hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives

Artemisia annua L. has received substantial attention as a source of the antimalarial compound, artemisinin, with the maximum content being observed during the squaring (bud emergence) period. However, dynamic fluctuations in microbial communities and co-occurrence networks in the soil of A. annua during plant growth remain unclear. In this study, pot experiments were performed using A. annua from two provenances to analyze its growth and major bioactive components to elucidate the responses of plant-associated indices and soil microbial communities (SMCs) at different growth stages of the plant. Furthermore, correlations between SMCs and A. annua growth parameters were explored. The results revealed that the activities of three soil enzymes (phosphatase, sucrase, and urease), plant height, branch numbers, as well as artemisinin and total polyphenol contents were increased with the progression of A. annua growth. However, soil physicochemical properties exhibited a contrasting trend. As A. annua growth progressed, the richness and diversity of soil bacteria generally decreased, whereas those of soil fungi increased, and microbial co-occurrence networks became less complex. Microbial communities fluctuated to varying degrees during the pot-culture process. Proteobacteria (31.5–48.4%) and Ascomycota (21.9–84.1%) accounted for the highest ratio of bacteria and fungi phyla, respectively, and had the maximum bacterial and fungal abundances during the nutritional flourish and flower bud differentiation stages of A. annua, respectively. Some SMCs were significantly positively or negatively (p≤0.5) correlated with plant growth parameters and major bioactive components of A. annua. Some microbial communities closely interplayed with soil physicochemical traits and enzyme activities. Our results provide evidence that SMCs in the soil of A. annua vary at different growth stages, and are closely correlated with plant fitness and artemisinin content.